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From ancient history to the present, many cultures around the world that have established [[gender-variant identities worldwide]], some of which are accepted as an essential part of their societies. These are the gender identities and roles that Western anthropologists have called '''third gender''', because they are different than the Western [[gender binary]] idea of [[cisgender]], [[heterosexual]], masculine [[men]] and feminine [[women]]. Identities that have been called "third gender" are often [[transgender]] and [[nonbinary]], and the "third gender" label pushes that interpretation. However, many of the identities that anthropologists call third gender are not nonbinary identities: some are instead [[lesbian]]s, [[gay]] men, and [[intersex]] people. This is part of why "third gender" is a problematic colonialist label. Calling these identities by outside labels such as "transgender" and "nonbinary," in cases where the people in question haven't said that they would call themselves by those words, can also be colonialist and problematic.
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This article about [[gender-variant identities worldwide]] is about many cultures' and ethnic groups' traditional identities and roles that do not fit into the Western [[gender binary]]. Although it is challenging for Western writers to do so, it is important to talk about these identities without imposing modern Western ideas of gender on them, or otherwise misrepresenting them. The following article focuses on identities that are most analogous to gender outside of the Western binary. However, due to the problems of imposing outsider's views on these identities, this isn't clear in all cases. Some of the identities in the list below may be more analogous to binary transgender women and transgender men. This should not list identities that are known to be more analogous to cisgender identities that are simply gender nonconforming or non-heterosexual.


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Although it is challenging for Western writers to do so, it is important to talk about these identities without imposing modern Western ideas of gender on them, such as [[binarism]]. Sometimes it isn't clear to outsiders whether a certain apparently [[gender nonconforming]] or [[LGBT]] role was made of people who were like what they think of as gay cisgender people, transgender women, transgender men, or nonbinary people. It can be unwise for outsiders to try to fit them into those modern Western categories. However, it is also difficult to talk about them without doing something like that.
Generally, people who aren't members of the cultures and ethnic groups in question aren't entitled to call themselves by any of the following genders. That would be [[ethnicity and culture#Cultural appropriation that impacts trans people|cultural appropriation]], which means wrongfully taking parts of somebody else's culture to use for yourself. It is okay to learn about these cultures, but not to take what is not one's own. Outsiders would do well to learning about cultures that accept people who are outside the Western gender binary so that they can support those people on their own terms, and so that they are informed about political challenges that those people face today. Outsiders also benefit by learning about them in order to see that there have been hundreds of accepting cultures throughout history, that it has been done and that it has worked, and that these genders have always been real. This gives hope for other cultures to become accepting as well.
 
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People who aren't members of these cultures and ethnic groups aren't entitled to call themselves by any of the following genders. That would be [[ethnicity and culture#Cultural appropriation that impacts trans people|cultural appropriation]], which means taking parts of somebody else's culture to use for yourself. It is acceptable to learn about these cultures, so long as one does not take what is not one's own.


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Outsiders should learn about cultures that accept transgender and nonbinary people so that they can support those people on their own terms, and so that they are informed about political challenges that those people face today. Outsiders should also learn about them in order to see that there have been hundreds of accepting cultures throughout history, that it has been done and that it has worked, and that these genders have always been real. This gives hope for other cultures to become accepting as well.
[[Third gender]], or third sex, is not a satisfactory label for all the identities on this page, because it has meant many things. Third gender is a concept in which individuals are categorized, either by themselves, by their society, or by outsiders to their society, as not fitting into the Western ideas of binary gender and heterosexual roles. The phrase "third gender" has been used for a wide variety of meanings: intersex people whose bodies do not fit outdated Western medical concepts of binary sex, hundreds of indigenous societal roles as described (and often misrepresented) by Western anthropologists (including indigenous identities such as south Asian [[hijra]]s, Hawaiian and Tahitian [[māhū]], and Native American identities now called [[Two-Spirit]]s),<ref>Julia Serano, ''Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity.'' Unpaged.</ref> transgender people who are [[nonbinary]], homosexual people even in Western societies,<ref name="Trumbach">Trumbach, Randolph. (1998) ''Sex and the Gender Revolution. Volume 1: Heterosexuality and the Third Gender in Enlightenment London''. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1998. (Chicago Series on Sexuality, History & Society)</ref><ref name="The Social Studies C">{{cite book |last=Ross |first=E. Wayne |title=The Social Studies Curriculum: Purposes, Problems, and Possibilities |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2006|isbn= 978-0-7914-6909-5 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4qFMqjxte9IC }}</ref><ref>Kennedy, Hubert C. (1980) ''The "third sex" theory of Karl Heinrich Ulrichs'', Journal of Homosexuality. 1980–1981 Fall–Winter; 6(1–2): pp. 103–1</ref> and women who were considered to be gender-nonconforming because they fought for women's rights.<ref>{{cite journal | jstor=407320 | pages=582–599 | last1=Wright | first1=B. D. | title="New Man," Eternal Woman: Expressionist Responses to German Feminism | volume=60 | issue=4 | journal=The German Quarterly | year=1987 | doi=10.2307/407320  }}</ref> A significant number of nonbinary people have adopted "third gender" to describe themselves. In the 2019 Worldwide Gender Census, 2.17% (244) of the 11,242 respondants called themselves third gender.<ref name="2019 Gender Census">"Gender Census 2019 - the worldwide TL;DR." ''Gender Census.'' March 31, 2019. Retrieved July 5, 2020. https://gendercensus.com/post/183843963445/gender-census-2019-the-worldwide-tldr Archive: https://web.archive.org/web/20200118084451/https://gendercensus.com/post/183843963445/gender-census-2019-the-worldwide-tldr</ref>


==Third gender== <!--T:5-->
==Identities in Africa== <!--T:5-->


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===Sekhet=== <!--T:6-->
''See main article: [[third gender]]''


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Third gender, or third sex, is a concept in which individuals are categorized, either by themselves, by their society, or by outsiders to their society, as not fitting into the Western ideas of [[binary gender]] and heterosexual roles.
[[File:Sekhet hieroglyphs.jpg|thumb|<translate><!--T:7--> The word "sekhet" in ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.</translate><ref name="Sekhet">"The Third Gender in Ancient Egypt." http://www.gendertree.com/Egyptian%20third%20gender.htm</ref>]]
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The phrase "third gender" has been used for a wide variety of meanings: intersex people whose bodies do not fit outdated Western medical concepts of binary sex, hundreds of indigenous societal roles as described (and often misrepresented) by Western anthropologists (including indigenous identities such as south Asian [[hijra]]s, Hawaiian and Tahitian [[māhū]], and Native American identities now called [[Two-Spirit]]s),<ref>Julia Serano, ''Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity.'' Unpaged.</ref> transgender people who are [[nonbinary]], homosexual people even in Western societies,<ref name="Trumbach">Trumbach, Randolph. (1998) ''Sex and the Gender Revolution. Volume 1: Heterosexuality and the Third Gender in Enlightenment London''. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1998. (Chicago Series on Sexuality, History & Society)</ref><ref name="The Social Studies C">{{cite book |last=Ross |first=E. Wayne |title=The Social Studies Curriculum: Purposes, Problems, and Possibilities |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2006|isbn= 978-0-7914-6909-5 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4qFMqjxte9IC }}</ref><ref>Kennedy, Hubert C. (1980) ''The "third sex" theory of Karl Heinrich Ulrichs'', Journal of Homosexuality. 1980–1981 Fall–Winter; 6(1–2): pp. 103–1</ref> and women who were considered to be gender-nonconforming because they fought for women's rights.<ref>{{cite journal | jstor=407320 | pages=582–599 | last1=Wright | first1=B. D. | title="New Man," Eternal Woman: Expressionist Responses to German Feminism | volume=60 | issue=4 | journal=The German Quarterly | year=1987 | doi=10.2307/407320  }}</ref>
* '''Name of identity:''' Sekhet
* '''Culture:''' Ancient Egypt
* '''Era:''' Middle Kingdom, 2000-1800 BCE
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' unknown, except that the ancient Egyptians said Sekhet were one of the three genders or sexes
* '''Role in society:''' unknown


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A significant number of nonbinary people have adopted "third gender" to describe themselves. In the 2019 Worldwide Gender Census, 2.17% (244) of the 11,242 respondants called themselves third gender.<ref name="2019 Gender Census">"Gender Census 2019 - the worldwide TL;DR." ''Gender Census.'' March 31, 2019. Retrieved July 5, 2020. https://gendercensus.com/post/183843963445/gender-census-2019-the-worldwide-tldr Archive: https://web.archive.org/web/20200118084451/https://gendercensus.com/post/183843963445/gender-census-2019-the-worldwide-tldr</ref>
Writings from ancient Egypt (Middle Kingdom, 2000-1800 BCE) said there were three genders of humans: males, ''sekhet (s<u>h</u>t)'', and females, in that order. Sekhet is usually translated as "eunuch," but that's probably an oversimplification of what this gender category means. Since it was given that level of importance, it could potentially be an entire category of gender/sex variance that doesn't fit into male or female. The hieroglyphs for ''sekhet'' include a sitting figure that usually mean a man, but the word doesn't include hieroglyphs that refer to genitals in any way. At the very least, ''sekhet'' is likely to mean cisgender gay men, in the sense of not having children, and not necessarily someone who was castrated. <ref name="Sekhet" />


==List of gender-variant identities== <!--T:10-->
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===Gender variance under the Mamluk Sultanate=== <!--T:10-->


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This list focuses on identities that are most analogous to nonbinary gender. However, due to the problems of imposing outsider's views on these identities, this isn't clear in all cases. Some of the identities in the list below may be more analogous to binary transgender women and transgender men than to nonbinary identity. This should not list identities that are known to be more analogous to cisgender identities that are simply gender nonconforming or non-heterosexual.
* '''Name of identity:''' ?
* '''Culture:''' Egypt, during the Mamluk Sultanate
* '''Era:''' 1200s to 1700s CE
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AFAB and masculine
* '''Role in society:'''
 
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In Egypt, during the Mamluk Sultanate of the 1200s to 1700s, masculine children who were [[Sexes#Assigned female at birth|assigned female at birth (AFAB)]] could be raised as men.{{Citation needed}}


===Africa=== <!--T:12-->
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[[File:Sekhet hieroglyphs.jpg|thumb|<translate><!--T:13--> The word "sekhet" in ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.</translate><ref name="Sekhet">"The Third Gender in Ancient Egypt." http://www.gendertree.com/Egyptian%20third%20gender.htm</ref>]]
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===Mino=== <!--T:13-->
 
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[[File:The célébration at Abomey(1908). - The veteran amazones( AHOSI ) of the Fon king Béhanzin, Son of Roi Gélé.jpg|thumb|<translate> <!--T:14--> A photo of Mino veterans at the annual meeting in Abomay in 1908. </translate>]]
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* Writings from ancient Egypt (Middle Kingdom, 2000-1800 BCE) said there were three genders of humans: males, ''sekhet (s<u>h</u>t)'', and females, in that order. Sekhet is usually translated as "eunuch," but that's probably an oversimplification of what this gender category means. Since it was given that level of importance, it could potentially be an entire category of gender/sex variance that doesn't fit into male or female. The hieroglyphs for ''sekhet'' include a sitting figure that usually mean a man, but the word doesn't include hieroglyphs that refer to genitals in any way. At the very least, ''sekhet'' is likely to mean cisgender gay men, in the sense of not having children, and not necessarily someone who was castrated. <ref name="Sekhet" />


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* In Egypt, during the Mamluk Sultanate of the 1200s to 1700s, masculine children who were [[Sexes#Assigned female at birth|assigned female at birth (AFAB)]] could be raised as men.
* '''Name of identity:''' ''Mino'', meaning "our mothers." Europeans called them Dahomey Amazons, because they saw them as warrior women.
* '''Culture:''' The Fon people of the Kingdom of Dahomey, which is in present-day Benin
* '''Era:''' 1640s CE until the end of the 19th century
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AFAB and masculine
* '''Role in society:''' soldiers, including hunters, riflewomen, reapers, archers, and gunners<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/women-soldiers-dahomey/pedagogical-unit/4|title=The women soldiers of Dahomey pedagogical unit 4 {{!}} Women|website=en.unesco.org|language=en|access-date=2018-10-31}}</ref>


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* In Benin, when it was the Kingdom of Dahomey, it had the Mino, warriors who were AFAB and considered masculine.
The Mino were a Fon all-female military regiment of the Kingdom of Dahomey. King Houegbadja (who ruled from 1645 to 1685), the third King of Dahomey, is said to have originally started the group which would become the Mino as a corps of elephant hunters called the ''gbeto''. Membership among the Mino was supposed to hone any aggressive character traits for the purpose of war. During their membership they were not allowed to have children or be part of married life (though they were legally married to the king). Many of them were virgins. The regiment had a semi-sacred status, which was intertwined with the Fon belief in Vodun. The Mino trained with intense physical exercise. They wore uniforms indicating their rank. They learnt survival skills and indifference to pain and death, storming acacia-thorn defenses in military exercises and executing prisoners. Discipline was emphasised. Serving in the Mino offered women the opportunity to "rise to positions of command and influence" in an environment structured for individual empowerment. The Mino were also wealthy and held high status. The Mino took a prominent role in the Grand Council, debating the policy of the kingdom. Units were under female command. Some historians have seen the Mino as not just warrior women, but transgender, or outside the Western gender binary. An 1851 published translation of a war chant of the women claims the warriors would chant, "a[s] the blacksmith takes an iron bar and by fire changes its fashion, so have we changed our nature. We are no longer women, we are men."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adams|first=Maeve|date=Spring 2010|title=The Amazon Warrior Women and the De/construction of Gendered Imperial Authority in Nineteenth-Century Colonial Literature|url=http://m.ncgsjournal.com/issue61/New%20PDFs/NCGS%20Journal%20Issue%206.1%20-%20The%20Amazon%20Warrior%20Woman%20-%20Maeve%20E.%20Adams.pdf|journal=Nineteenth-Century Gender Studies|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>


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* In Ethiopia, the Maale people had a gender role called Ashtime, for [[Sexes#Assigned male at birth|assigned-male-at-birth (AMAB)]] [[eunuch|eunuchs]] who live as [[women]], though later this became an umbrella term for all kinds of gender non-conforming AMAB people.
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===Ashtime=== <!--T:17-->


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* In Madagascar, the Sakalava people have the Sekrata, who are analogous to binary [[transgender women]].
* '''Name of identity:''' Ashtime
* '''Culture:''' The Maale people in the country of Ethiopia
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine, possibly eunuchs
* '''Role in society:'''
 
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In Ethiopia, the Maale people had a gender role called Ashtime, for [[Sexes#Assigned male at birth|assigned male at birth (AMAB)]] eunuchs who live as women, though later this became an umbrella term for all kinds of gender non-conforming AMAB people. There are opposing scholarly interpretations of the role and significance of the Ashtime. Some non-Maale historians believe that they are AMAB people who behave as women and also have sex with men.<ref>Epprecht, Marc. Heterosexual Africa?: The History of an Idea from the Age of Exploration to the Age of AIDS, p.61-62. Ohio University Press.</ref> Other non-Maale historians who lived among the Maale describe them very differently, saying the duty of an ''ashtime'' was to allow the king to have sex "protected from even the merest whiff of female sexuality at key moments in the ritual life of the nation".<ref>p. 196. Epprecht, Marc. 2006. “Bisexuality” and the politics of normal in African ethnography. ''Anthropologica'' 48: 187-201.</ref>


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[[File:We-Wa, a Zuni berdache, weaving - NARA - 523796.jpg|thumb|<translate><!--T:20--> We'Wha, a famous Zuni Two-Spirit (''Lhamana'') person who lived 1849-1896.</translate>]]
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Hundreds of cultures throughout North and South America had gender roles for those other than [[cisgender women]] and [[cisgender men]]. Internationally (that is, across all Native American nations), these transgender and nonbinary people are called [[two-spirit]]. Depending on the nation, and on the individual, a two-spirit role is not necessarily analogous to what Westerners consider nonbinary. That is, some two-spirit roles and persons may be more analogous to what Westerners categorize as gay men, lesbian women, bisexual people, trans men, or trans women. However, those roles and persons listed here can be considered analogous to nonbinary, in that they are distinct from-- or combine characteristics of-- male and female gender roles and expressions, in their cultures.
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* '''Name of identity:''' Sekrata
* '''Culture:''' The Sakalava people in Madagascar
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine
* '''Role in society:'''


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* The Blackfoot Confederacy recognizes Ninauposkitzipxpe, "manly-hearted women," who are AFAB and occupy a gender role different from that of women and men.
In Madagascar, the Sakalava people have the Sekrata, who were AMAB and live as women.{{Citation needed}}


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* The Lakota recognize Winkte, who are AMAB and occupy a gender role like that of women.
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==Identities in the Americas== <!--T:23-->


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* The Navajo recognize Nadleehi, who are AMAB and feminine, and the Dilbaa, who are AFAB and masculine.
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* The Zuni recognize ''lhamana'', who take on roles and duties associated with both men and women, and they wear a mixture of women's and men's clothing. They work as mediators.<ref name=Stevenson37>Matilda Coxe Stevenson, The Zuni Indians: Their Mythology, Esoteric Fraternities, and Ceremonies, (BiblioBazaar, 2010) p. 37</ref><ref name=Bost139>Suzanne Bost, Mulattas and Mestizas: Representing Mixed Identities in the Americas, 1850-2000, (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 2003, pg.139</ref>
"Berdache" was an old word used by European-American anthropologists. Berdache was an umbrella term for all traditional gender and sexual identities in all cultures throughout the Americas that were outside of Western ideas of binary gender and heterosexual roles.<ref name="Trans Bodies 611">Laura Erickson-Schroth, ed. ''Trans Bodies, Trans Selves: A Resource for the Transgender Community.'' Oxford University Press, 2014. P. 611.</ref> These identities included the ''nádleeh'' in Diné (Navajo),<ref>Franc Johnson Newcomb (1980-06). Hosteen Klah: Navaho Medicine Man and Sand Painter. University of Oklahoma Press. {{ISBN|0-8061-1008-2}}.</ref><ref>Lapahie, Harrison, Jr. Hosteen Klah (Sir Left Handed). Lapahie.com. 2001 (retrieved 19 Oct 2009)</ref><ref>Berlo, Janet C. and Ruth B.
Phillips. Native North American Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-284218-3}} . pg. 34</ref> and the ''lhamana'' in Zuni,<ref name=Stevenson380>Matilda Coxe Stevenson, The Zuni Indians: Their Mythology, Esoteric Fraternities, and Ceremonies, (BiblioBazaar, 2010) p.&nbsp;380</ref> among many others. In 1990, an Indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering chose to internationally replace "berdache" with "[[Two-Spirit]]" as a preferable umbrella term for these identities.<ref name=NativeOut101>"[http://nativeout.com/twospirit-rc/two-spirit-101/ Two Spirit 101]" at ''NativeOut''. Accessed 23 Sep 2015</ref><ref>Eve Shapiro, ''Gender circuits: Bodies and identities in a technological age.'' Unpaged.</ref> Two-Spirit was chosen to distance these identities from non-Natives,<ref name="de Vries 2009">{{cite book|last1=de Vries|first1=Kylan Mattias|editor1-last=O'Brien|editor1-first=Jodi|title=Encyclopedia of gender and society|date=2009|publisher=SAGE|location=Los Angeles |isbn=9781412909167 |page=64 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_nyHS4WyUKEC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0|accessdate=6 March 2015|chapter=Berdache (Two-Spirit)}}</ref> and should only be used for people who are Native American, because it is for identities that must be contextualized in Native cultures.<ref name=NYT1>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/08/fashion/08SPIRIT.html?_r=0|title=A Spirit of Belonging, Inside and Out|work=The New York Times|date=8 Oct 2006|accessdate=28 July 2016}}</ref><ref name=Vowel-1>{{cite book|last1=Vowel|first1=Chelsea|editor1-last=|editor1-first=|title= Indigenous Writes: A Guide to First Nations, Métis & Inuit Issues in Canada|date=2016|publisher=Highwater Press|location=Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada|isbn=978-1553796800|page=|accessdate=|chapter=All My Queer Relations - Language, Culture, and Two-Spirit Identity |ref=harv}}</ref> Because of the wide variety of identities under the Two-Spirit umbrella, a Two-Spirit person does not necessarily have an identity analogous to a non-Native nonbinary gender identity. Some do, but others are more analogous to non-Native gay male or lesbian woman identities. Notable people who identify specifically with the label "Two-Spirit" include Menominee poet Chrystos (b. 1946), who goes by they/them pronouns,<ref>{{cite web |title=Chrystos |url= http://www.poetryfoundation.org/bio/chrystos |website=PoetryFoundation.org |access-date=October 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brehm|first=Victoria|date=1998|title=Urban Survivor Stories: The Poetry of Chrystos|journal=Studies in American Indian Literatures|volume=10|issue=1|pages=73–82|jstor=20739440|issn=0730-3238}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorrel |first1=Lorraine |title=Review: Not Vanishing |journal=[[off our backs]] |date=March 31, 1989 |volume=19 |issue= 3}}</ref> and Ojibwe artist Raven Davis (b. 1975), who goes by neutral pronouns.<ref name="ednet">{{cite web|url=http://www.middleton.ednet.ns.ca/Newsletters/Newsletter.May2015.pdf|title=Newsletter.May2015.pdf|accessdate=2015-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125220828/http://www.middleton.ednet.ns.ca/Newsletters/Newsletter.May2015.pdf|archive-date=2015-11-25|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>IT ALL STARTS WITH AWARENESS -LGBTQ DAY IN ESKASONI. http://kinu.ca/news {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125225027/http://kinu.ca/news |date=2015-11-25 }}</ref> In the 2019 Worldwide Gender Census, 0.18% (20) of the responses called themselves Two-Spirit. Many more responses in that and earlier surveys called themselves by specific identities under the Two-Spirit umbrella.<ref name="2019 Gender Census" />


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* In Mexico, the Zapotec people recognize the Muxe, who are AMAB and feminine. This term also includes gay men.
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===Ninauposkitzipxpe=== <!--T:26-->


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* In Peru, the pre-colonial Incas recognized Quariwarmi, a nonbinary mixed-gender role.
* '''Name of identity:''' Ninauposkitzipxpe, "manly-hearted women"
* '''Culture:''' The Blackfoot Confederacy
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AFAB
* '''Role in society:'''


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*The Ojibwe people of Canada recognized the ininiikaazo and the ikwekaazo pre-colonization. Ininiikaazo means "woman who functions as a man," and ikwekaazo means "man who functions as a woman."
The Blackfoot Confederacy recognizes Ninauposkitzipxpe, "manly-hearted women," who are AFAB and occupy a gender role different from that of women and men.


*"[I]n parts of Chile and Argentina, 'machi' are spiritual leaders who fluidly move between or embrace both womanhood and manhood during healing ceremonies."<ref>Barbee, H., & Schrock, D. (2019). ''Un/gendering Social Selves: How Nonbinary People Navigate and Experience a Binarily Gendered World''. Sociological Forum. doi:10.1111/socf.12517 </ref>
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[[File:Hermaphrodite Indian entertainers (c. 1865).jpg|thumb|<translate><!--T:30--> A group of Hijra, circa 1865.</translate>]]
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===Winkte=== <!--T:29-->
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* '''Name of identity:''' Winkte
* '''Culture:''' Lakota
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB
* '''Role in society:'''
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* In south Asian countries including India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, the [[Hijra]] are AMAB people with a feminine gender expression. This is a very ancient tradition. Today, Hijra are legally recognized as a gender other than female or male. The Hijra of India alone may number as many as 2,000,000.<ref>Reddy, Gayatri, With Respect to Sex: Negotiating Hijra Identity in South India, 310 pp., University of Chicago Press, 2005 ISBN 0-226-70755-5 (see p. 8)</ref>
The Lakota recognize Winkte, who are AMAB and occupy a gender role different from men.


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* The Bugis people of Indonesia divide their society into five separate genders. These are ''oroané'' (cisgender men), ''makkunrai'' (cisgender women), ''calabai'' (analogous to transgender women), ''calalai'' (transgender men), and ''bissu''. To be considered bissu, all aspects of gender must be combined to form a whole. Bissu may or may not be [[intersex]]. It is a cultural belief that all five genders must harmoniously coexist.<ref>"Sulawesi's fifth gender" . Inside Indonesia. https://web.archive.org/web/20120728104208/http://www.insideindonesia.org/edition-66-apr-jun-2001/sulawesi-s-fifth-gender-3007484 Archived from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 2011-07-25.</ref><ref><a href="http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/29/IIASNL29_27.pdf">"Sex, Gender, and Priests in South Sulawesi, Indonesia"</a>  (PDF). International Institute for Asian Studies. Retrieved 2011-07-25. </ref> <ref>Davies, Sharyn Graham. Gender Diversity in Indonesia: Sexuality, Islam and Queer Selves (ASAA Women in Asia Series), Routledge, 2010.</ref><ref>Davies, Sharyn Graham. Challenging Gender Norms: Five Genders Among Bugis in Indonesia (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology), Wadsworth Publishing, 2006.</ref><ref>Pelras, Christian. The Bugis (The Peoples of South-East Asia and the Pacific), Wiley-Blackwell, 1997.</ref>
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===Nadleehi and Dilbaa=== <!--T:32-->


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* Also in Indonesia, ''waria'' refers to a third gender.<ref>Oostvogels, Robert (1995). ''The Waria of Indonesia: A Traditional Third Gender Role'', in Herdt (ed.), op cit.</ref> Because the discrimination they face, most warias only have the option to work as sex workers.
* '''Name of identity:''' Nadleehi and Dilbaa
* '''Culture:''' Diné (Navajo)
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' Nadleehi are AMAB and feminine. The Dilbaa are AFAB and masculine.
* '''Role in society:'''


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* In Japan, [[X-gender]] (Xジェンダー) is a common transgender identity that isn't female or male.<ref>Marilyn Roxie. "Selected links on nonbinary gender in Japan." March 28, 2013. [http://genderqueerid.com/post/46526429887/selected-links-on-non-binary-gender-in-japan http://genderqueerid.com/post/46526429887/selected-links-on-non-binary-gender-in-japan]</ref>
The Diné recognize Nadleehi, who are AMAB and feminine, and the Dilbaa, who are AFAB and masculine.


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* In Turkey, in the 17th century Ottoman Empire, the köçek were feminine AMAB people.
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=== Lhamana === <!--T:35-->


<!--T:36-->
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* In Oman, the Xanith are AMAB people with a partially feminine gender expression.
[[File:We-Wa, a Zuni berdache, weaving - NARA - 523796.jpg|thumb|<translate><!--T:36--> We'Wha, a famous Zuni Two-Spirit (''Lhamana'') person who lived 1849-1896.</translate>]]
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* In Nepal, the Metis are AMAB people with a feminine gender expression.
* '''Name of identity:''' Lhamana
* '''Culture:''' Zuni
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:'''
* '''Role in society:''' Mediators. They take on roles and duties associated with both men and women.  


<!--T:38-->
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* In Myanmar, the Acault are AMAB people with a feminine gender expression.
The Zuni recognize ''lhamana'', who take on roles and duties associated with both men and women, and they wear a mixture of women's and men's clothing. They work as mediators.<ref name=Stevenson37>Matilda Coxe Stevenson, The Zuni Indians: Their Mythology, Esoteric Fraternities, and Ceremonies, (BiblioBazaar, 2010) p. 37</ref><ref name=Bost139>Suzanne Bost, Mulattas and Mestizas: Representing Mixed Identities in the Americas, 1850-2000, (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 2003, pg.139</ref>


<!--T:39-->
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* In Siberia, the indigenous Chuckchi people have shamans who are a nonbinary gender, usually feminine AMAB people.
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===Muxe=== <!--T:39-->


<!--T:40-->
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* In Iraq, the ancient Sumerians had several kinds of nonbinary priesthoods, called Assinnu, Kurgarru, and Kalaturru.
* '''Name of identity:''' Muxe
* '''Culture:''' Zapotec
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine
* '''Role in society:'''


<!--T:41-->
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* In Afghanistan and Pakistan, there is a 100 year old tradition in which a family with no sons will choose a daughter to raise as a ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacha_posh bacha posh]'' (meaning "dressed as a boy"), a male or intermediate gender role. This lasts until the child has reached marriage age, whereupon the child is pressured to switch to a female gender role.
In Mexico, the Zapotec people recognize the Muxe, who are AMAB and feminine. This term also includes gay men.


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* In classical Arabic writings, people called Mukhannathun (Arabic مخنثون "effeminate ones", "men who resemble women", singular mukhannath) were queer people who were assigned male at birth, analogous to transgender women, or to very feminine gay men, depending on the individual. In Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 41, Number 4910, Mohammed said to exile a mukhannath, and said not to kill them.<ref>USC-MSA compendium of Muslim Text: Partial Translation of Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 41:General Behavior (Kitab Al-Adab), Number 4910 http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/abudawud/041.sat.html#041.4910</ref> At one point during the Umayyad dynasty, a caliph ordered that all mukhannathun should be castrated. In response to this, a group of mukhannathun are recorded as having this conversation about it: "This is simply a circumcision which we must undergo again." "Or rather the Greater Circumcision!" "With castration I have become a mukhannath in truth!" "Or rather we have become women in truth!" "We have been spared the trouble of carrying around a spout for urine." "What would we do with an unused weapon anyway?"<ref>Rowson, Everett K. (October 1991). <a href="http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/The_effeminates_of_early_medina.pdf">"The Effeminates of Early Medina"</a> (PDF). Journal of the American Oriental Society (American Oriental Society) 111 (4): 671–693. doi:10.2307/603399 . JSTOR 603399.</ref>
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===Quariwarmi=== <!--T:42-->


<!--T:43-->
<!--T:43-->
*In the Philippines, various pre-colonial ethnic groups had spiritual functionaries called ''babaylan''/''balian''/''katalonan'', a few of them being AMAB people with a feminine gender expression called ''asog'' in groups in the Visayan islands and ''bayok'' in the Luzon islands.<ref>http://intersections.anu.edu.au/issue2/carolyn2.html</ref> Persecution of non-Christian, non-Muslim people and the imposition of patriarchy and binary gender has led to the erasure of these social roles.<ref>https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=93lag7tXriIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> 
* '''Name of identity:''' Quariwarmi
* '''Culture:''' Inca
* '''Era:'''  
* '''Description of sex/gender:'''
* '''Role in society:'''


<!--T:44-->
<!--T:44-->
* In Thailand, ''[[kathoey]]'' refers to trans women or effeminate gay men. However, a lot of people perceive ''kathoeys'' as a third gender.<ref>Winter, Sam (2003). Research and discussion paper: ''Language and identity in transgender: gender wars and the case of the Thai kathoey''. Paper presented at the Hawaii conference on Social Sciences, Waikiki, June 2003. [http://web.hku.hk/~sjwinter/TransgenderASIA/paper_language_and_identity.htm Article online].</ref> Many ''kathoeys'' work in traditionally female occupations such as in shops or restaurants, but also in factories. They can also works in cabarets and as sex workers.<ref>Winter S, Udomsak N (2002). [https://cdn.atria.nl/ezines/web/IJT/97-03/numbers/symposion/ijtvo06no01_04.htm Male, Female and Transgender: Stereotypes and Self in Thailand]. ''International Journal of Transgenderism''. 6,1</ref>
In Peru, the pre-colonial Incas recognized Quariwarmi, a mixed-gender role.


===Australia and Oceania=== <!--T:45-->
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===Ininiikaazo and Ikwekaazo=== <!--T:45-->


<!--T:46-->
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* In Australia, Queensland Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities recognize identities called sistergirl (analogous to trans woman) and brotherboy (analogous to trans man).<ref>http://www.atsaq.com/files/Supporting%20Transgender%20and%20Sistergirl%20Web%20verision.pdf</ref>
* '''Name of identity:''' ininiikaazo and the ikwekaazo
* '''Culture:''' Ojibwe people in what is now Canada
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' Ininiikaazo means "woman who functions as a man," and ikwekaazo means "man who functions as a woman."
* '''Role in society:'''


<!--T:47-->
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* In Tiwi Island culture, "Sistagirl", traditionally ''Yimpininni'', is an identity analogous to trans woman.<ref>https://aboriginalartandculture.wordpress.com/2011/02/06/bindi-cole-and-the-sistagirls/</ref>
The Ojibwe recognized the ininiikaazo and the ikwekaazo pre-colonization. Ininiikaazo means "woman who functions as a man," and ikwekaazo means "man who functions as a woman."
 
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[[File:Auckland pride parade 2016 37.jpg|thumb|<translate><!--T:48--> Fa'afafine banner at the Auckland pride parade in 2016.</translate>]]
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===Machi=== <!--T:48-->
<!--T:49-->
<!--T:49-->
* In Samoa, the [[Fa'afafine]] are AMAB people with a feminine gender expression, who don't think of themselves as female or male. It has been estimated that between the 1% and 5% of Samoans are fa'afafine.<ref>http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-37227803</ref> Fa'afafines are accepted in the Samoan culture, although in some conservative sectors of the society they are still discriminated.  Fa'afafines translates to "in the manner of a woman" in Samoa<ref name=":1">Wade, Lisa & Myra Marz Ferree. ''Gender: Ideas, Interactions, Institutions.'' New York: W. W. Norton, 2015.</ref>.
* '''Name of identity:''' Machi
* '''Culture:''' The Mapuche (Araucana) people in what is now Chile and Argentina
* '''Era:''' traditional to present
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' whether AMAB or AFAB, their spiritual practices involve cross-dressing. Many but not all Machi themselves
* '''Role in society:''' shaman, spiritual leader


<!--T:50-->
<!--T:50-->
* In New Zealand, the Maori culture recognizes transgender identities called Whakawahine (feminine and AMAB) and Wakatane (masculine and AFAB).
The Machi are the shamans of the Mapuche people. During their rituals, the Machi cross-dress in order to communicate with certain aspects of the Creator.<ref>Barbee, H., & Schrock, D. (2019). ''Un/gendering Social Selves: How Nonbinary People Navigate and Experience a Binarily Gendered World''. Sociological Forum. doi:10.1111/socf.12517 </ref>


<!--T:51-->
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* [[Māhū]] ("in the middle") in Kanaka Maoli (Hawaiian) and Maohi (Tahitian) cultures are [[third gender]] persons with traditional spiritual and social roles within the culture. The māhū gender category existed in their cultures during pre-contact times, when they were noted as priests and healers, and they still exist today. Māhū people can be either AMAB or AFAB.<ref>Kaua'i Iki, quoted by Andrew Matzner in 'Transgender, queens, mahu, whatever': An Oral History from Hawai'i. Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context Issue 6, August 2001</ref>  
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==Identities in Asia== <!--T:51-->


<!--T:52-->
* In the Cook Islands, people who do not fit the gender binary are called akava'ine<ref name=":1" />.
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===Europe=== <!--T:53-->
===Hijra===<!--T:52-->
 
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[[File:Sworn virgin in Rapsha, Albania.gif|thumb|<translate><!--T:54--> Sworn virgin in Rapsha, Hoti, Ottoman Albania, at the beginning of the 20th century.</translate>]]
[[File:Hermaphrodite Indian entertainers (c. 1865).jpg|thumb|<translate><!--T:53--> A group of Hijra, circa 1865.</translate>]]
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{{main|hijra}}
<!--T:55-->
<!--T:55-->
* In Albania, the Burrnesha, "sworn virgins," are AFAB people with a masculine gender expression and role. This tradition goes back to at least the 1400s, and is still practiced.
* '''Name of identity:''' Hijra
* '''Culture:''' South Asian countries including India, Pakistan, and Banglades
* '''Era:''' From from 400 BCE or 300 CE to the present
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' feminine eunuchs
* '''Role in society:''' religious


<!--T:56-->
<!--T:56-->
* In Italy, the Femminello, "little man-woman," are AMAB people with a feminine gender expression.
In south Asian countries including India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, the [[hijra]] are people who were [[Sexes#Assigned male at birth|assigned male at birth]], who have a feminine gender expression. Traditionally and today, some hijras seek castration. Hijras live together communally. They have important roles in religious practice. They can be Hindu or Muslim. Hijra traditions are ancient. The earliest mention of hijras is in the ''Kama Sutra,'' from 400 BCE to 300 CE.<ref>{{cite book|title=Refractions of Desire, Feminist Perspectives in the Novels of Toni Morrison, Michèle Roberts, and Anita Desai|author=Sengupta, J.|date=2006|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|isbn=9788126906291|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V9Y_tQfm_WgC|page=21|accessdate=7 December 2014}}</ref> In one of the earliest Western records of them, Franciscan travelers wrote about seeing hijras in the 1650s.<ref>Donald Lach. ''Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance. Book 2, South Asia.'' University of Chicago, 1998.</ref> From the 1850s onward, the British Raj criminalized and tried to exterminate hijras.<ref>Laurence W. Preston. "A Right to Exist: Eunuchs and the State in Nineteenth-Century India." ''Modern Asian Studies'' (journal), April 1987, vol. 21, issue 2, pp. 371–387 doi=10.1017/S0026749X00013858 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231903575</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Reddy, Gayatri.|title=With respect to sex : negotiating hijra identity in South India|date=2005|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-70754-9|location=Chicago|oclc=655225261}}</ref> Since the late 20th century, hijra activists and non-government organizations have lobbied for official recognition of the hijra as a legal sex other than male or female. This is important for them to be able to have passports, travel, hold jobs, and other rights. They have been successful at achieving legal recognition as another gender in Nepal, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.<ref>Reddy, Gayatri, With Respect to Sex: Negotiating Hijra Identity in South India, 310 pp., University of Chicago Press, 2005 ISBN 0-226-70755-5 (see p. 8)</ref><ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/11/12/india.gender.voting/index.html, "India's third gender gets own identity in voter rolls", Harmeet Shah Singh, CNN.com], Nov. 2009 </ref><ref>Mitch Kellaway. "Trans Indian's Predicament at Border Shows the U.S. Lags Behind." May 9, 2015. Advocate. http://www.advocate.com/politics/transgender/2015/05/09/trans-indian-womans-predicament-border-shows-us-lags-behind</ref><ref>[http://www.politicsdaily.com/2009/12/25/pakistan-recognizes-third-gender/ "Pakistan Recognizes Third Gender", Ria Misra, Politics Daily], Dec. 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2013/nov/11/hijras-now-separate-gender, "Hijras now a separate gender", Mohosinul Karim, Dhaka Tribune], Nov. 2013 </ref><ref>http://www.attn.com/stories/868/transgender-passport-status</ref> The Hijra in India alone may number as many as 2,000,000 today.<ref>Reddy, Gayatri, With Respect to Sex: Negotiating Hijra Identity in South India, 310 pp., University of Chicago Press, 2005 ISBN 0-226-70755-5 (see p. 8)</ref> There were no hijra respondents to 2016 Nonbinary/Genderqueer Survey,<ref name=NBGQ2016 /> or the 2019 Worldwide Gender Census.<ref name="2019 Gender Census" />
 
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===Several world regions=== <!--T:57-->
===Bissu=== <!--T:57-->


====Gallae==== <!--T:58-->
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[[File:Statue of Gallus priest.jpg|thumb|left|150px|<translate> <!--T:59--> Statue of a galla priest in feminine clothing, 2nd century, Capitoline Museum. </translate>]]
[[File:Puang Matoa 2004.JPG|thumb|120px|<translate> <!--T:58--> In Bugis society, androgynous ''bissu'' are priests, shamans, sorcerers, or mediums. </translate>]]
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* '''Name of identity:''' Bissu
* '''Culture:''' the Bugis people of Indonesia
* '''Era:''' six centuries ago to present.<ref name=ABC>{{cite news|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation News|first=Farid M|last=Ibrahim|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-02-27/indonesia-fifth-gender-might-soon-disappear/10846570|accessdate=27 February 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227045350/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-02-27/indonesia-fifth-gender-might-soon-disappear/10846570|archive-date=27 February 2019|title=Homophobia and rising Islamic intolerance push Indonesia's intersex bissu priests to the brink|date=27 February 2019}}</ref>
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' a combination of all aspects of gender, not considered men or women, not necessarily intersex, can be AMAB or AFAB
* '''Role in society:''' priesthood
<!--T:60-->
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A significant portion of the ancient priests of the goddess Cybele and her consort Attis were '''Gallae'''. This tradition began in Phygia (where Turkey is today, part of Asia Minor), 2,300 years ago.<ref name="kaldera 174">Raven Kaldera. ''Hermaphrodeities: The Transgender Spirituality Workbook.'' Hubbardston, Massachusetts: Asphodel Press, 2008. P. 174-179.</ref> After 205 BCE, it spread throughout the Roman Empire, as far north as London.<ref name="kaldera 174" /> The Gallae were AMAB eunuchs. They wore bright-colored feminine sacerdotal clothing, hairstyles or wigs, makeup, and jewelry, and used feminine mannerisms in their speech. Contemporaries who were not Gallae called them by masculine words, Galloi or Galli (plural), or Gallus (singular). Some historians interpret the Gallae as transgender, and think they would have called themselves by the feminine Gallae (plural) and Galla (singular).<ref>Kirsten Cronn-Mills, ''Transgender Lives: Complex Stories, Complex Voices'' (2014, {{ISBN|0761390227}}), page 39</ref><ref>Teresa Hornsby, Deryn Guest, ''Transgender, Intersex and Biblical Interpretation'' (2016, {{ISBN|0884141551}}), page 47</ref><ref name="seabrook gallae about">Laura Anne Seabrook, "About this comic." ''Tales of the Gallae.'' http://totg-mirror.thecomicseries.com/about/</ref> The Roman poet Ovid (43 BC – 17 AD) says their name comes from the Gallus river in Phrygia;<ref>Maarten J. Vermaseren, ''Cybele and Attis: the myth and the cult'', translated by A. M. H. Lemmers,  London: Thames and Hudson, 1977, p.85, referencing Ovid, ''Fasti'' IV.9</ref> "gallus" itself means chicken or rooster. There were other priests and priestesses of Cybele who were not eunuchs, but ordinary men, and other priestesses who were cisgender or transmasculine Amazonian warrior women.<ref name="kaldera 174" /> Due to the Gallae's practice of castration, many historians have been confused about how to categorize Gallae in modern frameworks of sex, gender, and religion. The Gallae were not ascetic but hedonistic, so castration was not about stopping sexual desires. Some Gallae would marry men, and others would marry women, so castration was not about being a gay man. Their ways were more consistent with transgender people who had suffered gender dysphoria, which they relieved by castration, as the available form of [[bottom surgery|sex reassignment surgery]].<ref name="kaldera 174" />
The Bugis people of Indonesia divide their society into five separate genders. These are ''oroané'' (cisgender men), ''makkunrai'' (cisgender women), ''calabai'' (analogous to transgender women), ''calalai'' (transgender men), and ''bissu''. To be considered bissu, all aspects of gender must be combined to form a whole. Bissu may or may not be [[intersex]]. It is a cultural belief that all five genders must harmoniously coexist.<ref>"Sulawesi's fifth gender" . Inside Indonesia. https://web.archive.org/web/20120728104208/http://www.insideindonesia.org/edition-66-apr-jun-2001/sulawesi-s-fifth-gender-3007484 Archived from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 2011-07-25.</ref><ref><a href="http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/29/IIASNL29_27.pdf">"Sex, Gender, and Priests in South Sulawesi, Indonesia"</a>  (PDF). International Institute for Asian Studies. Retrieved 2011-07-25. </ref> <ref>Davies, Sharyn Graham. Gender Diversity in Indonesia: Sexuality, Islam and Queer Selves (ASAA Women in Asia Series), Routledge, 2010.</ref><ref>Davies, Sharyn Graham. Challenging Gender Norms: Five Genders Among Bugis in Indonesia (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology), Wadsworth Publishing, 2006.</ref><ref>Pelras, Christian. The Bugis (The Peoples of South-East Asia and the Pacific), Wiley-Blackwell, 1997.</ref> There are divergent theories regarding the definitive origins and meaning of "gender transcendent", as the bissu are commonly called.<ref name=Prezi>{{cite web |url=http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/29/IIASNL29_27.pdf |title=Sex, Gender, and Priests in South Sulawesi, Indonesia |publisher=[[International Institute for Asian Studies]] |accessdate=2011-07-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721074825/http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/29/IIASNL29_27.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>


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For one to be considered ''bissu'', all aspects of gender must be combined to form a whole. It is believed that you are born with the propensity to become a ''bissu'', revealed in a baby whose genitalia are ambiguous. These ambiguous genitalia need not be visible; a normative male who becomes a ''bissu'' is believed to be female on the inside. This combination of sexes enables a 'meta-gender' identity to emerge. However, ambiguous genitalia alone do not confer the state of being a ''bissu''.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.insideindonesia.org/edition-66/sulawesi-s-fifth-gender-3007484 |title=Sulawesi's fifth gender |journal=[[Inside Indonesia]] |accessdate=2011-07-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728104208/http://www.insideindonesia.org/edition-66-apr-jun-2001/sulawesi-s-fifth-gender-3007484 |archive-date=28 July 2012 }}</ref> The person must also learn the language, songs and incantations, and have a gift for bestowing blessings in order to become ''bissu''. They must remain celibate and wear conservative clothes.<ref name=ABC/> In daily social life, the ''bissu'', the ''calabai'', and the ''calalai'' may enter the dwelling places and the villages of both men and women.<ref name=Prezi1>{{cite web|website=Prezi|url=https://prezi.com/yhh0sdzysou5/the-bugis-five-genders-and-belief-in-a-harmonious-world/|title=The Bugis Five Genders and Belief in a Harmonious World|first=Karlana|last=June|date=23 February 2015|accessdate=27 February 2019}}</ref>
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In pre-Islamic Bugis culture, ''bissu'' were seen as intermediaries between the people and the gods, according to Indonesian anthropologist Professor Halilintar Lathief. Up until the 1940s, the ''bissu'' were still central to keeping ancient palace rituals alive, including [[coronation]]s of kings and queens.<ref name=ABC/>
<!--T:63-->
Bugis society has a cultural belief that all five genders must co-exist harmoniously;<ref name=Prezi1/> but by 2019 the numbers of ''bissu'' had declined dramatically, after years of increasing persecution and the tradition of revering ''bissu'' as traditional community priests. ''Bissu'' have mostly survived by participating in weddings as maids of honour and working as farmers as well as performing their cultural roles as priests. Hardline Islamic groups, police and politicians have all played their part in Indonesia's increased harassment and discrimination of the LGBTI community. After independence in 1949, the ancient Bugis kingdoms were incorporated into the new republic and ''bissus''' roles became increasingly sidelined. A regional Islamic rebellion in South Sulawesi led to further persecution. As the atmosphere became increasingly homophobic, fewer people were willing to take on the role of ''bissu''.<ref name=ABC/>
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===Waria=== <!--T:64-->
<!--T:65-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Waria
* '''Culture:''' Indonesia
* '''Era:''' traditional to present
* '''Description of sex/gender:'''
* '''Role in society:''' often sex workers
<!--T:66-->
''Waria'' is a traditional third gender role found in modern Indonesia.<ref>Oostvogels, Robert (1995). ''The Waria of Indonesia: A Traditional Third Gender Role'', in Herdt (ed.), op cit.</ref><ref>Oostvogels, Robert (1995). ''The Waria of Indonesia: A Traditional Third Gender Role'', in Herdt (ed.), op cit.</ref> Because the discrimination they face, most warias only have the option to work as sex workers.
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===Köçek=== <!--T:67-->
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[[File:Turkish - Dancing Kocek - Late 19th c - wiki.jpg|thumb|120px|<translate> <!--T:68--> ''"Köçek with a tambourine"'', Photograph late 19th century.</translate>]]
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<!--T:69-->
* '''Name of identity:''' köçek, from a Persian word meaning "little" or "young."
* '''Culture:''' In Turkey, köçek were recruited from among the ranks of the non-Muslim subject nations of the empire, such as Jews, Romani (Gypsies), Greeks, and Albanians.<ref name="Mevaid">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibnistan.net/sarkescinselk/sark2.html |title=Mevâid'de eşcinsel kültür |website=ibnistan.net |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073208/http://www.ibnistan.net/sarkescinselk/sark2.html |archivedate=March 4, 2016 }}</ref>
* '''Era:''' 17th to 19th centuries CE
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine
* '''Role in society:''' dancers, acrobats, entertainers, and sex workers in connection with harem culture
<!--T:70-->
In Turkey, in the 17th century Ottoman Empire, the köçek were feminine AMAB people. They were the AMAB counterparts to the AFAB ''çengi'' (belly dancers), but the köçek were seen as more desirable.<ref name="Dancing fear & desire"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Tazz Richards|year=2000|title=The Belly Dance Book: Rediscovering the Oldest Dance|url=https://archive.org/details/bellydancebookre00rich|url-access=registration|pages= [https://archive.org/details/bellydancebookre00rich/page/11 11], 27, 28, 29–37, 32}}</ref> A ''köçek'' would begin training around the age of seven or eight to become expert at dancing to ''köçekçe'' music, and would be considered accomplished after about six years of study and practice. A dancer's career would last as long as he was beardless and retained his youthful appearance.<ref>{{cite book|author=Anthony Shay|date=2014|title=The Dangerous Lives of Public Performers: Dancing, Sex, and Entertainment in the Islamic World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BO1CBAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|ISBN=978-1-349-49268-8|page=25}}</ref> They wore makeup, long hair, jewels, velvet, and gold. Like belly dancers, their dance involved gyrating their hips and snapping their fingers to the rhythm. The occasions of their performances were wedding or circumcision celebrations, feasts and festivals, as well as the pleasure of the sultans and the aristocracy. The köçeks were available sexually, often to the highest bidder, in the passive role.<ref>{{cite book|author=Danielle J. van Dobben|year=2008|title=Dancing Modernity: Gender, sexuality and the state in the late Ottoman Empire and early Turkish Republic|url=http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/bitstream/10150/193284/1/azu_etd_2907_sip1_m.pdf|publisher=The University of Arizona, Near Eastern Studies|isbn=978-1-243-41693-3|pages=43–44, 47–51}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Joseph A. Boone|year=2014|title=The Homoerotics of Orientalism: Mappings of Male Desire in Narratives of the Near and Middle East|publisher=Columbia University Press|ISBN=978-0-231-15110-8|page=102}}</ref> They performed before men who were screaming fans, and sometimes these audiences would become violent with one another as the fans tried to attract their attention.<ref name="Dancing fear & desire">{{cite book|author=Stavros Stavrou Karayanni|year=2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=088920926X|title=Dancing Fear & Desire: Race, Sexuality and Imperial Politics in Middle Eastern Dance|publisher=WLU Press|isbn=088920926X|pages=78, 82–83}}</ref>
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===Xanith===<!--T:71-->
<!--T:72-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Xanith (also spelled '''Khaneeth''' or '''Khanith'''; خنيث;  ''khanīth'').  The word is closely related to مخنث ''mukhannath'', another word for feminine AMAB people described elsewhere on this page.<ref>{{cite book|editor=George Haggerty|date=2000|title=Encyclopedia of Gay Histories and Cultures|publisher=Garland Publishing Inc.|isbn=0-8153-1880-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofga00ghag/page/515 515–516]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofga00ghag/page/515}}</ref>
* '''Culture:''' Oman and the Arabian Peninsula
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and partially feminine
* '''Role in society:'''
<!--T:73-->
In Oman, the Xanith are AMAB people with a partially feminine gender expression.
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===Metis===<!--T:74-->
<!--T:75-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Metis
* '''Culture:''' Nepal
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine
* '''Role in society:'''
<!--T:76-->
In Nepal, the Metis are AMAB people with a feminine gender expression.
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===Acault===<!--T:77-->
<!--T:78-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Acault
* '''Culture:''' Myanmar
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine
* '''Role in society:'''
<!--T:79-->
In Myanmar, the Acault are AMAB people with a feminine gender expression.
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===Chuckchi shaman===<!--T:80-->
<!--T:81-->
* '''Name of identity:'''
* '''Culture:''' the indigenous Chuckchi people of Siberia
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' usually AMAB and feminine
* '''Role in society:''' shaman
<!--T:82-->
In Siberia, the indigenous Chuckchi people have shaman who are a gender role that do not fit into the Western gender binary. They are usually feminine AMAB people.
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===Sumerian priesthood===<!--T:83-->
<!--T:84-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Assinnu, Kurgarru, and Kalaturru
* '''Culture:''' ancient Sumeria, in what is now the country of Iraq
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' Each of these three classes of priesthood had a different gender identity: feminine AMAB, masculine AFAB, and nonbinary. No surviving records tell us which word was for which gender.
* '''Role in society:''' priesthood
<!--T:85-->
In what is now Iraq, the ancient Sumerians had several kinds of priesthoods that do not fit into the Western gender binary, called Assinnu, Kurgarru, and Kalaturru.
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===Bacha Posh===<!--T:86-->
<!--T:87-->
* '''Name of identity:''' bacha posh (بچه پوش literally "dressed as a boy")
* '''Culture:''' Afghanistan and Pakistan
* '''Era:''' about 1900 CE to present<ref>{{cite book|last=Ford|first=Cheryl Waiters, with Darnella|title=Blood, sweat, and high heels: a memoir|publisher=iUniverse|location=Bloomington|isbn=146205496X|pages=9}}</ref>
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AFAB and masculine
* '''Role in society:''' to perform the family duties of a son
<!--T:88-->
In Afghanistan and Pakistan, there is a 100 year old tradition in which a family with no sons will choose a daughter to raise as a ''bacha posh'', a male or intermediate gender role. This lasts until the child has reached marriage age, whereupon the child is pressured to switch to a female gender role.
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===Mukhannathun===<!--T:89-->
<!--T:90-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Mukhannathun (Arabic مخنثون "effeminate ones", "men who resemble women", singular mukhannath)
* '''Culture:'''
* '''Era:''' pre-Islamic and early Islamic eras.<ref name="EoAL">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, Volume 2|author=S. Moreh|authorlink=Shmuel Moreh|editor=Julie Scott Meisami, Paul Starkey|page=548|chapter=mukhannathun|year=1998|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780415185721}}</ref>
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine
* '''Role in society:'''
<!--T:91-->
In classical Arabic writings, people called Mukhannathun were queer people who were assigned male at birth. They were analogous to transgender women, or to very feminine gay men, depending on the individual. In Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 41, Number 4910, Mohammed said to exile a mukhannath, and said not to kill them.<ref>USC-MSA compendium of Muslim Text: Partial Translation of Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 41:General Behavior (Kitab Al-Adab), Number 4910 http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/abudawud/041.sat.html#041.4910</ref> At one point during the Umayyad dynasty, a caliph ordered that all mukhannathun should be castrated. In response to this, a group of mukhannathun are recorded as having this conversation about it: "This is simply a circumcision which we must undergo again." "Or rather the Greater Circumcision!" "With castration I have become a mukhannath in truth!" "Or rather we have become women in truth!" "We have been spared the trouble of carrying around a spout for urine." "What would we do with an unused weapon anyway?"<ref>Rowson, Everett K. (October 1991). <a href="http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/The_effeminates_of_early_medina.pdf">"The Effeminates of Early Medina"</a> (PDF). Journal of the American Oriental Society (American Oriental Society) 111 (4): 671–693. doi:10.2307/603399 . JSTOR 603399.</ref>
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===Asog===<!--T:92-->
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[[File:Potters at work. The one on the right is a man in woman's garb (Itneg people, 1922).jpg|thumb|<translate> <!--T:93--> Potters from the Itneg people. The person on the right is a ''bayok'' in female attire (c. 1922).<ref name="cole">{{cite journal|first1=Fay-Cooper|last1= Cole|first2=Albert |last2=Gale|year=1922|title=The Tinguian; Social, Religious, and Economic life of a Philippine tribe|journal=Field Museum of Natural History: Anthropological Series|volume=14|issue=2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/tinguiansocialre142cole/page/235 235]–493|url=https://archive.org/details/tinguiansocialre142cole}}</ref></translate>]]
<translate>
<!--T:94-->
* '''Name of identity:''' called ''asog'' in groups in the Visayan islands, and ''bayok'' in the Luzon islands.<ref>http://intersections.anu.edu.au/issue2/carolyn2.html</ref>
* '''Culture:''' indigenous peoples of the Philippines
* '''Era:''' traditional to present
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine
* '''Role in society:''' shaman
<!--T:95-->
In the Philippines, various pre-colonial ethnic groups had spiritual functionaries called ''babaylan'', ''balian'', or ''katalonan''. A few of them were AMAB people with a feminine gender expression called ''asog'' in groups in the Visayan islands and ''bayok'' in the Luzon islands.<ref>http://intersections.anu.edu.au/issue2/carolyn2.html</ref> Persecution of non-Christian, non-Muslim people and the imposition of patriarchy and binary gender has led to the erasure of these social roles.<ref>https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=93lag7tXriIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> 
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===Kathoey===<!--T:96-->
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[[File:Kathoy1649.jpg|thumb|<translate> <!--T:97--> Kathoeys on the stage of a cabaret show.</translate>]]
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<!--T:98-->
{{main|kathoey}}
<!--T:99-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Kathoey. Often rendered as "ladyboy" in English.
* '''Culture:''' Thailand
* '''Era:''' to present
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine. Not completely synonymous with trans women, gay men, or intersex people.
* '''Role in society:''' today, kathoey often have occupations that are usually associated with women, such as in shops, restaurants, and beauty salons, but also in factories (a reflection of Thailand's high proportion of female industrial workers).<ref name="SwinterNsak">Winter S, Udomsak N (2002). [http://www.symposion.com/ijt/ijtvo06no01_04.htm Male, Female and Transgender: Stereotypes and Self in Thailand] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228130914/http://www.symposion.com/ijt/ijtvo06no01_04.htm |date=28 February 2007 }}. ''International Journal of Transgenderism''. 6,1</ref> Kathoey also work in entertainment and tourist centres, in cabarets, and as sex workers.<ref name="Tooru Nemoto">{{cite journal|last=Nemoto|first=Tooru|year=2012|title=HIV-Related Risk Behaviors among Kathoey (Male-to-Female Transgender) Sex Workers in Bangkok, Thailand|url=|journal=AIDS Care|volume=24|issue=2|pages=210–9|doi=10.1080/09540121.2011.597709|pmc=3242825|pmid=21780964}}</ref>
<!--T:100-->
In Thailand, ''[[kathoey]]'' can refer to a variety of kinds of LGBT people, but more specifically it means AMAB people who are feminine, and who may seek physical transition, and who do not entirely consider themselves to be men or women.<ref>Winter, Sam (2003). Research and discussion paper: ''Language and identity in transgender: gender wars and the case of the Thai kathoey''. Paper presented at the Hawaii conference on Social Sciences, Waikiki, June 2003. [http://web.hku.hk/~sjwinter/TransgenderASIA/paper_language_and_identity.htm Article online].</ref>
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==Identities in Australia and Oceania== <!--T:101-->
===Sistergirl and brotherboy===<!--T:102-->
<!--T:103-->
* '''Name of identity:''' sistergirl and brotherboy
* '''Culture:''' Queensland Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities
* '''Era:''' to present
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' Sistergirl is analogous to trans woman. Brotherboy is analogous to trans man.<ref name="atsaq">http://www.atsaq.com/files/Supporting%20Transgender%20and%20Sistergirl%20Web%20verision.pdf</ref>
* '''Role in society:'''
<!--T:104-->
In Australia, Queensland Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities recognize identities called sistergirl (analogous to trans woman) and brotherboy (analogous to trans man).<ref>http://www.atsaq.com/files/Supporting%20Transgender%20and%20Sistergirl%20Web%20verision.pdf</ref>
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===Yimpininni===<!--T:105-->
<!--T:106-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Yimpininni. Less traditionally, rendered in English as Sistagirl.
* '''Culture:''' Tiwi Island culture
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' analogous to trans woman
* '''Role in society:'''
<!--T:107-->
In Tiwi Island culture, "Sistagirl", traditionally ''Yimpininni'', is an identity analogous to trans woman.<ref>https://aboriginalartandculture.wordpress.com/2011/02/06/bindi-cole-and-the-sistagirls/</ref>
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===Fa'afafine===<!--T:108-->
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[[File:Auckland pride parade 2016 37.jpg|thumb|<translate><!--T:109--> Fa'afafine banner at the Auckland pride parade in 2016.</translate>]]
<translate>
<!--T:110-->
{{main|Fa'afafine}}
<!--T:111-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Fa'afafine, meaning "in the manner of a woman" in Samoa<ref name=":1">Wade, Lisa & Myra Marz Ferree.  ''Gender: Ideas, Interactions, Institutions.''  New York: W. W. Norton, 2015.</ref>.
* '''Culture:''' Samoa
* '''Era:''' traditional to present
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine
* '''Role in society:''' Faʻafafine are known for their hard work and dedication to the family, in the Samoan tradition of ''[[tautua]]'' or service to family. Ideas of the family in Samoa and Polynesia are markedly different from Western constructions, and include all the members of a ''sa'', or communal family within the ''[[fa'amatai|faʻamatai]]'' family systems.<ref>Saleimoa Vaai, Samoa Faa-matai and the Rule of Law (Apia: The National University of Samoa Le Papa-I-Galagala, 1999).</ref> Traditionally, faʻafafine follow the training of the women's daily work in an ''Aiga'' (Samoan family group).<ref>Danielsson, B., T. Danielsson, and R. Pierson. 1978. Polynesia's third sex: The gay life starts in the kitchen. Pacific Islands Monthly 49:10–13.</ref>
<!--T:112-->
In Samoa, the [[Fa'afafine]] are AMAB people with a feminine gender expression, who don't think of themselves as female or male. It has been estimated that between the 1% and 5% of Samoans are fa'afafine.<ref>http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-37227803</ref> Fa'afafines are accepted in the Samoan culture, although in some conservative sectors of the society they are still discriminated against.
<!--T:113-->
The AFAB and masculine counterpart of fa'afafine in Samoa are known variously as faʻatane, faʻatama, and fafatama.{{Citation needed}}
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===Whakawahine and Wakatane=== <!--T:114-->
<!--T:115-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Whakawahine and Wakatane
* '''Culture:''' New Zealand Māori
* '''Era:''' traditional to present
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' Whakawahine are feminine and AMAB. Wakatane are masculine and AFAB.
* '''Role in society:'''
<!--T:116-->
In New Zealand, the Maori culture recognizes transgender identities called Whakawahine (feminine and AMAB) and Wakatane (masculine and AFAB).
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===Māhū===<!--T:117-->
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[[File:Paul Gauguin 063.jpg|thumb|200px|<translate> <!--T:118--> ''Papa Moe (Mysterious Water)'', an oil painting by the Westerner, Paul Gauguin, from 1893. It depicts a māhū in Tahiti drinking from a waterfall.<ref>Mario Vargas Llosa. "The men-women of the Pacific." ''Tate Britain.'' http://www.tate.org.uk/context-comment/articles/men-women-pacific</ref><ref>Stephen F. Eisenman. Gauguin's Skirt. 1997.</ref></translate>]]
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<!--T:119-->
{{main|Māhū}}
<!--T:120-->
* '''Name of identity:''' māhū (meaning "in the middle")
* '''Culture:''' the Kanaka Maoli (Hawaiian) and Maohi (Tahitian) cultures
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and AFAB people who are outside the Western concept of gender roles
* '''Role in society:'''
<!--T:121-->
In the Kanaka Maoli (Hawaiian) and Maohi (Tahitian) cultures, the māhū is a traditional gender role outside of the Western concept of gender roles. It is made of people who may have been [[Sexes#Assigned gender at birth|assigned either male or female at birth]]. This tradition existed before Western invaders.<ref name="tate">''[http://www.tate.org.uk/context-comment/articles/men-women-pacific The men-women of the Pacific]'', tate.org.uk/Tate Britain, [http://www.webcitation.org/6WpIsllud archive URL] 6 March 2015.</ref> The first published description of māhū is from 1789.<ref>William Bligh.  Bounty Logbook.  Thursday, January 15, 1789.</ref> From 1820 onward, Westerners stigmatized and criminalized māhū.<ref>Aleardo Zanghellini. "Sodomy Laws and Gender Variance in Tahiti and Hawai'i." ''Laws'' Vol. 2, Issue 2 (2013), p. 51–68 doi: 10.3390/laws2020051</ref> Māhū still exist today,<ref name="tate" /> and play an important role in preserving and reviving Polynesian culture.<ref name=UHP95>Besnier, Niko, Alexeyeff, Kalissa. ''Gender on the edge : transgender, gay, and other Pacific islanders.'' Honolulu, 2014 isbn=9780824840198</ref><ref name=Robinson>Carol E. Robertson. 1989 "The Māhū of Hawai'i." ''Feminist Studies.'' volume 15, issue 2, pages=318. doi=10.2307/3177791 issn=0046-3663 jstor=3177791</ref> There was one māhū in the 2016 Nonbinary/Genderqueer Survey,<ref name=NBGQ2016 /> and one in the 2019 Worldwide Gender Census.<ref name="2019 Gender Census" />
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===Akava'ine=== <!--T:122-->
<!--T:123-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Akava'ine. According to the Cook Islands Maori dictionary (1995) 'akava'ine comes from the prefix ''aka'' ("to be or to behave like") and ''va'ine'' ("woman"),<ref name="BuseTaringa1995">{{cite book|author1=Jasper Buse|author2=Raututi Taringa|title=Cook Islands Maori Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AT2ENAHoS28C&pg=PA51|accessdate=27 July 2013|year=1995|isbn=978-0-7286-0230-4|page=51}}</ref> or simply, "to behave as a woman".<ref name="BuseTaringa1995"/><ref name="Alexeyeff2009">{{cite book|author=Kalissa Alexeyeff|title=Dancing from the Heart: Movement, Gender, and Cook Islands Globalization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SdmBdhq6l-gC&pg=PT105|accessdate=27 July 2013|year=2009|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-3244-5|page=105}}</ref>)
* '''Culture:''' Cook Islands Māori
* '''Era:''' to present
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine
* '''Role in society:''' work that is traditionally women's work, especially sewing. Some ''akava'ine'' take part in the making of ''tivaevae'' (quilts), an activity traditionally done by the women of the community.<ref name="LittleMcAnany2011">{{cite book|author1=Walter E. Little|author2=Patricia Ann McAnany|title=Textile Economies: Power and Value from the Local to the Transnational|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=woPmXQOU4hUC&pg=PA72|accessdate=27 July 2013|date=16 October 2011|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7591-2061-7|page=72}}</ref>
<!--T:124-->
In the Cook Islands, some people who do not fit the Western gender binary are called akava'ine.<ref name=":1" />
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==Identities in Europe== <!--T:125-->
===Burrnesha=== <!--T:126-->
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[[File:Sworn virgin in Rapsha, Albania.gif|thumb|200px|<translate><!--T:127--> Sworn virgin in Rapsha, Hoti, Ottoman Albania, at the beginning of the 20th century.</translate>]]
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<!--T:128-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Burrnesha, meaning "sworn virgins"
* '''Culture:''' Albania
* '''Era:''' 1400s CE to present
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AFAB and masculine
* '''Role in society:''' most roles that otherwise only men are allowed to do
<!--T:129-->
In Albania, the Burrnesha are AFAB people with a masculine gender expression and role. This tradition goes back to at least the 1400s, and is still practiced.
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===Femminello=== <!--T:130-->
<!--T:131-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Femminello, meaning "little man-woman"
* '''Culture:''' Italy
* '''Era:'''
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine
* '''Role in society:'''
<!--T:132-->
In Italy, the Femminello are AMAB people with a feminine gender expression.
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==Identities from several world regions== <!--T:133-->
===Gallae=== <!--T:134-->
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[[File:Statue of Gallus priest.jpg|thumb|150px|<translate> <!--T:135--> Statue of a galla priest in feminine clothing, 2nd century, Capitoline Museum. </translate>]]
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<!--T:136-->
* '''Name of identity:''' Contemporaries who were not Gallae called them by masculine words, Galloi or Galli (plural), or Gallus (singular). Some historians interpret the Gallae as transgender, and think they would have called themselves by the feminine Gallae (plural) and Galla (singular).<ref>Kirsten Cronn-Mills, ''Transgender Lives: Complex Stories, Complex Voices'' (2014, {{ISBN|0761390227}}), page 39</ref><ref>Teresa Hornsby, Deryn Guest, ''Transgender, Intersex and Biblical Interpretation'' (2016, {{ISBN|0884141551}}), page 47</ref><ref name="seabrook gallae about">Laura Anne Seabrook, "About this comic." ''Tales of the Gallae.'' http://totg-mirror.thecomicseries.com/about/</ref> The Roman poet Ovid (43 BC – 17 AD) says their name comes from the Gallus river in Phrygia;<ref>Maarten J. Vermaseren, ''Cybele and Attis: the myth and the cult'', translated by A. M. H. Lemmers,  London: Thames and Hudson, 1977, p.85, referencing Ovid, ''Fasti'' IV.9</ref> "gallus" itself means chicken or rooster.
* '''Culture:''' Originally Phrygia (where Turkey is today, part of Asia Minor)
* '''Era:''' 2,300 years ago to 6th century CE; revived in the modern day
* '''Description of sex/gender:''' AMAB and feminine eunuchs
* '''Role in society:''' priesthood
<!--T:137-->
A significant portion of the ancient priesthood of the goddess Cybele and her consort Attis were Gallae. This tradition began in Phygia (where Turkey is today, part of Asia Minor), 2,300 years ago.<ref name="kaldera 174">Raven Kaldera. ''Hermaphrodeities: The Transgender Spirituality Workbook.'' Hubbardston, Massachusetts: Asphodel Press, 2008. P. 174-179.</ref> After 205 BCE, it spread throughout the Roman Empire, as far north as London.<ref name="kaldera 174" /> The Gallae were AMAB eunuchs. They wore bright-colored feminine sacerdotal clothing, hairstyles or wigs, makeup, and jewelry, and used feminine mannerisms in their speech. There were other priests and priestesses of Cybele who were not eunuchs, but ordinary men, and other priestesses who were cisgender or transmasculine Amazonian warrior women,<ref name="kaldera 174" /> so it would not have been necessary to become a Gallae or a eunuch simply in order to become a priest of Cybele. The Gallae were not ascetic but hedonistic, so castration was not about stopping sexual desires. Some Gallae would marry men, and others would marry women, so castration was not simply about being a man attracted to men. The ways of the Gallae were more consistent with transgender people who had suffered gender dysphoria, which they relieved by voluntary castration, as the available form of [[bottom surgery|sex reassignment surgery]].<ref name="kaldera 174" />
<!--T:138-->
The Gallae lived together in the ''metro'on'' temple compounds, which they tended, and cared for the statue of Cybele. They called one another by familial titles like Mother and Sister. They spent much of their time traveling in order to beg for charity, in exchange for which they told fortunes and blessed homes.<ref name="Maarten J. Vermaseren 1977, p.97">Maarten J. Vermaseren, ''Cybele and Attis: the myth and the cult'', translated by A. M. H. Lemmers, London: Thames and Hudson, 1977, p.97.</ref><ref name="kaldera 174" /> They were believed to have spiritual powers: that they could bring rain, and exorcise evil spirits. The Roman public viewed them with a mixture of awe and contempt, seeing them as practicing shocking foreign customs, so they were just as often honored as they were harassed and politically persecuted. They were not allowed to be Roman citizens, and vice versa.  
The Gallae lived together in the ''metro'on'' temple compounds, which they tended, and cared for the statue of Cybele. They called one another by familial titles like Mother and Sister. They spent much of their time traveling in order to beg for charity, in exchange for which they told fortunes and blessed homes.<ref name="Maarten J. Vermaseren 1977, p.97">Maarten J. Vermaseren, ''Cybele and Attis: the myth and the cult'', translated by A. M. H. Lemmers, London: Thames and Hudson, 1977, p.97.</ref><ref name="kaldera 174" /> They were believed to have spiritual powers: that they could bring rain, and exorcise evil spirits. The Roman public viewed them with a mixture of awe and contempt, seeing them as practicing shocking foreign customs, so they were just as often honored as they were harassed and politically persecuted. They were not allowed to be Roman citizens, and vice versa.  


<!--T:61-->
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The Gallae practiced annual celebrations representing the death and rebirth of the god Attis. Their best-known holiday was the Day of Blood (''Dies Sanguinis'') on March 24, in which the Gallae would dance around a felled and decorated pine tree. The Gallae were known for wild dancing, during which they whipped themselves and one another until they reached an altered state of consciousness. They were also known for playing loud music with drums, flutes, and cymbals. (One possible origin of the word "cymbal" is that it comes from their goddess Cybele.) Then their initiates would publicly, ritually castrate themselves on the temple steps, by means of potsherds in their own hands. This was to show that their castration was voluntary. They would throw the severed genitals into the cheering crowd, which were good luck to catch. Whatever family caught them would return thanks for the blessing by caring for the initiate while she healed.<ref name="kaldera 174" /> Afterward, the initiate's lower belly was tattooed, and the healed wound dressed with gold leaf.<ref name="seabrook gallae about" />  
The Gallae practiced annual celebrations representing the death and rebirth of the god Attis. Their best-known holiday was the Day of Blood (''Dies Sanguinis'') on March 24, in which the Gallae would dance around a felled and decorated pine tree. The Gallae were known for wild dancing, during which they whipped themselves and one another until they reached an altered state of consciousness. They were also known for playing loud music with drums, flutes, and cymbals. (One possible origin of the word "cymbal" is that it comes from their goddess Cybele.) Then their initiates would publicly, ritually castrate themselves on the temple steps, by means of potsherds in their own hands. This was to show that their castration was voluntary. They would throw the severed genitals into the cheering crowd, which were good luck to catch. Whatever family caught them would return thanks for the blessing by caring for the initiate while she healed.<ref name="kaldera 174" /> Afterward, the initiate's lower belly was tattooed, and the healed wound dressed with gold leaf.<ref name="seabrook gallae about" />  


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Due to being criminalized, persecuted, and exterminated by the Christians, the Gallae were gone by the 6th century CE. Today, some trans women and worshipers of Cybele call themselves Gallae, and [http://gallae.com one of their modern temples is in New York]. Laura Anne Seabrook, a trans woman and follower of Cybele who considers herself a modern gallae, created an educational web-comic, [http://totg-mirror.thecomicseries.com/about/ Tales of the Galli]. Her comic is a work of historical fiction about Gallae in ancient Rome, based on her extensive historical research.</translate>
Due to being criminalized, persecuted, and exterminated by the Christians, the Gallae were gone by the 6th century CE. Today, some trans women and worshipers of Cybele call themselves Gallae, and [http://gallae.com one of their modern temples is in New York]. Laura Anne Seabrook, a trans woman and follower of Cybele who considers herself a modern gallae, created an educational web-comic, [http://totg-mirror.thecomicseries.com/about/ Tales of the Galli]. Her comic is a work of historical fiction about Gallae in ancient Rome, based on her extensive historical research.
 
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==See also== <!--T:63-->
==See also== <!--T:141-->
*[[Nonbinary gender outside of the transgender community]]
*[[Nonbinary gender outside of the transgender community]]
*[[List of nonbinary identities]]
*[[List of nonbinary identities]]
*[[Gender variance in spirituality]]
*[[Gender variance in spirituality]]


==External links== <!--T:64-->
==External links== <!--T:142-->
* [http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/two-spirits/map.html PBS: A Map of Gender-Diverse Cultures]. This is an interactive world map showing the locations of dozens of cultures that recognize nonbinary genders.
* [http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/two-spirits/map.html PBS: A Map of Gender-Diverse Cultures]. This is an interactive world map showing the locations of dozens of cultures that recognize nonbinary genders.
* [[Wikipedia:Third gender|Wikipedia's Third gender article]]
* [[Wikipedia:Third gender|Wikipedia's Third gender article]]


==Further reading== <!--T:65-->
==Further reading== <!--T:143-->
* Herdt, Gilbert H. ''Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History''. New York: Zone Books, 1994. Print.
* Herdt, Gilbert H. ''Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History''. New York: Zone Books, 1994. Print.
* Nanda, Serena. ''Gender Diversity: Crosscultural Variations''. Prospect Heights, Ill: Waveland Press, 2000. Print.
* Nanda, Serena. ''Gender Diversity: Crosscultural Variations''. Prospect Heights, Ill: Waveland Press, 2000. Print.


==References== <!--T:66-->
==References== <!--T:144-->
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[[Category:Gender-variant identities worldwide]][[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Gender-variant identities worldwide]][[Category:Spirituality]]
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